The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1993, 16/1, p. 56-62.

Baum, S., & Steward, R. [Psychology Department, Oakland U, Rochester, Michigan 48309-4401 USA] (1990). Sources of meaning through the lifespan. Psychological Reports, 67, 3-14.

This research assessed amounts and origins of meaningful events in persons' lives. Neither a modified PIL test nor sources of meaning varied with age or sex. Themes of involvement were the salient meaning sources and included love, work, child birth, independent pursuits, accidents, illnesses, deaths, separations/divorces, and major purchases.

Brown, H. [U Missouri School of Education, St. Louis, Missouri USA] & Peterson, J. (1990). Rationale and procedural suggestions for defining and actualizing spiritual values in the treatment of dependency. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 7, 17-46.

Reviews literature on values and addictions. Provides a step-by-step description of a values therapy for persons with addictions. Includes a case study example.

Casella, L. [Hofstra U., New York USA] & Motta, R. (1990). Comparison of characteristics of Vietnam veterans with and without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychological Reports, 67,595-605.

Compared Vietnam veterans with and without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Veterans without PTSD showed: a) greater ability to have provided meaning and structure to Vietnam experiences; b) lower neuroticism and psychoticism scores; and c) more internalized locus of control.

Debats, D. [State U. Groningen, Academic Hospital, Netherlands] (1990). The Life Regard Index: Reliability and validity. Psychological Reports, 67, 27-34.

Within this demonstration of the psychometric properties of the Life Regard Index, the degree of meaning in life correlated significantly with a clear philosophy of life, education, and psychological counseling.

Drolet, J. [U. Laval, Quebec, Canada] (1990). Transcending death during early adulthood: Symbolic immortality, death anxiety, and purpose in life. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 148-160.

This study developed a scale to measure one's sense of symbolic immortality. Symbolic immortality is the idea that the effects of our life have an influence that lasts even after our death. Research data are presented to support the hypothesis that a sense of symbolic immortality helps individuals cope with fear of death. Within the study, the PIL test correlated highly with the sense of symbolic immortality, and it correlated negatively with death anxiety.

Ebersole, P. [Psychology Dept., California State U.--Fullerton, Fullerton, California 92634 USA] & Kobayakawa, S. (1989). Bias in meaning in life ratings. Psychological Reports, 65, 911-914.

The Meaning in Life Depth (MILD) instrument requires subjects to write essays about their personal meaning in life, and then the essays are rated by judges. Thus a life-meaning rating is obtained that is partially independent of the subject's self-report. The MILD is presented as an alternative to the PIL test. Possible biases in MILD ratings are assessed in this study, and potential corrections are discussed.

Florian, V. [Bar-Ilan U, Ramat Gan, Isreal] (1990). Meaning and purpose in life of bereaved parents whose son fell during active military service. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 20, 91-102.

This research used the PIL test and another meaning in life scale to demonstrate that parents who had lost a son during active military duty experienced existential vacuum relative to couples who had not experienced the loss of a son.

Frankl, V. [Vienna U Medical School, Vienna, Austria] (1990). Logotherapy and the challenge of suffering. Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, 20, 63-67.

Reprint of a 1961 article that discusses implications of addition of the noölogical to the biological and psychological aspects of human beings.

Gartner, J., Harmatz, M., Hohmann, A., Larson, D., et al. (1990). The effect of client and counselor values on clinical judgment. Counseling and Values, 35, 58-62.

Provides research evidence for "ideological countertransference" [might be termed "values system countertransference"] as a distorting force in clinical judgement.

Gutmann, M. [U of Wisconsin Medical School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin USA] (1990). Illness as a moral metaphore. Contemporary Psychology, 35, 334-335.

This is a book review of Arthur Kleinman's 1988 The Illness Narratives: Suffering, Healing, and the Human Condition published by Basic Books. The reviewer states that the book eloquently expresses moral outrage at the dehumanizing effects of the reductionistic medicalization of human suffering.

Harlow, L. [Psychology Department, U of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881-0808 USA] (1990). Towards a general hierarchical model of meaning and satisfaction in life. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 387-405.

This research article developed an encompassing description of meaning and satisfaction in life. Theoretical and research articles were reviewed to determine factors correlated with a sense of meaning and life satisfaction. Nine factors--Peer Relationships, Intimate Relationships, Family Relationships, Purpose in Life, Perceived Opportunity, Work Satisfaction, Health Satisfaction, Meaninglessness, and Powerlessness--were incorporated into a 25-variable measurement instrument that was administered to 739 young adults. Sophisticated statistical procedures were conducted. The nine factors were highly related and could be explained by three second-order factors labeled Relationship Satisfaction, Perceptions of Purposeful Living, and Work and Health Satisfaction. The three second-order factors could be explained by a third-order factor labeled Meaning and Satisfaction in Life (with the strongest contribution from Relationship Satisfaction). The author concludes that discussion of any one of the factors separately provides a limited view of the general construct of meaning and satisfaction.

Hermans, H. [Catholic U, Psychological Lab, Nijmegen, Netherlands], Fiddelaers, R., deGroot, R., & Nauta, J. (1990). Self-confrontation as a method for assessment and intervention in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 156-162.

Describes the use of a three-step method of self-confrontation as a method of investigation of individual's value systems.

Hershberger, P. [Psychology Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 4100 W 3rd St., Dayton, Ohio 45428 USA] & Walsh, W. (1990). Multiple Role involvements and the adjustment to conjugal bereavement: An exploratory study. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 21, 91-102.

The number of role involvements (parent, employee, friend, student, hobbyist, and organization participant) correlated positively with adjustment after bereavement; better than sex, age, time since spouse's death, education, income, or religiosity. The number of involvements correlated positively with PIL test scores.

Hutzell, R. [VAMC-116B, Knoxville, Iowa 50138 USA] & Jerkins, M. (1990). The use of a logotherapy technique in the treatment of multiple personality disorder. Dissociation, 3, 88-93.

Describes the use of the Values Awareness Technique (VAT) in fostering cooperation among personalities in the successful treatment of MPD. Provides two case studies as demonstration.

Lantz, J. [College of Social Work, The Ohio State U, Columbus, Ohio USA] & Harper, K. (1990). Anomic depression and the migrating family. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 12, 153-163.

This paper discusses the existential family vacuum (anomic family depression) that is possible in reaction to the stress of family migration where the family's traditional methods of discovering/experiencing meaning are disrupted. Existential family therapy is discussed.

Lantz, J. [College of Social Work, The Ohio State U, Columbus, Ohio USA] & Pegram, M. (1989). Casework and the restoration of meaning. Social Casework, 70, 549-555.

This paper provides an overview of Frankl's philosophy. Then many short case studies of the restoration of meaning in social casework are outlined for individual, group, marital, and family therapy.

Leon, G. [U. Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota USA], Ben-Porath, Y., & Hjemboe, S. (1990). Coping patterns and current functioning in a group of Vietnam and Vietnam-era nurses. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 334-353.

Found, in Vietnam and Vietnam-era military nurses, that good current psychological functioning is associated with searching for meaning in events, expressing feelings, and seeking emotional support.

Linkenbach, J. [Colorado State U, Center for Alcohol Education USA] (1990). An Adlerian technique for substance-abuse prevention and intervention. Individual Psychology: Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research and Practice, 46,203-207.

Describes a single-session group activity for substance-abuse education and the surfacing of values in order to make healthy choices regarding substance use.

Little, G. [1045 Mullins Sta. Rd., Memphis, Tennessee 39134 USA] & Robinson, K. (1989). Effects of moral reconation therapy upon moral reasoning, life purpose, and recidivism among drug and alcohol offenders. Psychological Reports, 64, 83-90.

Incarcerated substance offenders were treated with Moral Reconation Therapy (moral reasoning therapy). As clients progressed in the program, levels of moral reasoning and purpose in life (measured by the Life Purpose Questionnaire) increased significantly. Preliminary data in the aftercare program using the therapy showed low recidivism.

Little, G. [1045 Mullins Sta. Rd., Memphis, Tennessee 39134 USA] & Robinson, K. (1989). Relationship of DUI recidivism to moral reasoning, sensation seeking, and MacAndrew alcoholism scores. Psychological Reports, 65, 1171-1174.

Driving-under-the-influence offenders were treated with Moral Recognation Therapy (moral reasoning therapy). Some test scores supported the hypothesis that higher levels of moral reasoning were related to lower recidivism. As part of this study, the Life Purpose Questionnaire (LPQ) was administered, but LPQ results did not correlate significantly with recidivism.

Maton, K. [U Maryland-Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland USA] (1990). Meaningful involvement in instrumental activity and well-being: Studies of older adolescents and at-risk urban teen-agers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 297-320.

As part of 2 studies reported in this article, the author found that meaningful involvement in activity was positively related to life satisfaction.

Pearson, P. [Dept. of Psychology, West Suffolk Hospital, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk IP33 2QZ, England] & Sheffield, B. (1989). Psychoticism and purpose in life. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 1321-1322.

PIL test scores of young, female nurses correlated negatively with psychoticism, negatively with neuroticism, and positively with extraversion on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.

Perri, M. [U Georgia College of Pharmacy, Athens, Georgia USA] (1990). Application of the List of Values alternative Psychographic Assessment Scale. Psychological Reports, 66, 403-406.

The List of Values scale is composed of 9 values from which consumers select the one with which they most identify. The author studied the most often selected values of purchasers of health and beauty aids.

Ramos, C. (1990). The metamorphosis of home: Banking on people's power. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 23, 51-59.

Discusses techniques that surfaced, merged, and internalized corporate and personal values to change a troubled business to be more employee and customer oriented. A variety of methods were employed that stressed the need for values and vision to build a work team in a more human, more spiritual corporate setting.

Richards, D. [Atlantic U., PO Box 595, Virginia Beach, Virginia 23451 USA] (1990). A Universal Forces dimension of locus of control in a population of spiritual seekers. Psychological Reports, 67, 847-850.

The author provides data and concludes that belief in control by a higher power does not preclude a belief in personal power. As part of the study, purpose in life correlated significantly with a new scale of locus of control.

Schlesinger, S. [Loyola U., Chicago, Illinois USA], Susman, M., & Koenigsberg, J. (1990). Self-esteem and purpose in life: A comparative study of women alcoholics. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 36, 127-141.

Results of this study suggest alcoholics are not all alike, and women alcoholics may constitute an identifiable group for which specific treatment programming should be designed. There were significant differences in PIL test and self-esteem scores between alcoholic and non-alcoholic women but not men in this study.

Schwehn, J. [Los Alamos Family Council, Los Alamos, New Mexico USA] & Schau, C. (1990). Psychotherapy as a process of value stabilization. Counseling and Values, 35, 24-30.

This study used the Rokeach Value Survey and suggested greater stability in the reported values of psychotherapists than the reported values of their clients. The therapists were more confident about their values, but the clients' confidence increased during psychotherapy.

Waller, N. [U Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota USA], Kojetin, B., Bouchard, T., Lykken, D., et al. (1990). Genetic and environmental influences on religious interests, attitudes, and values: A study of twins reared apart and together. Psychological Science, 1, 138-142.

Studied identical twins and fraternal twins--some reared together; some reared apart. Administered 5 scales (including a religious values scale), and statistically showed approximately 50% of the observed variance of all 5 scales was genetically influenced.

The International Forum for Logotherapy, 1993, 16/2, 123-126.

Bartlett, S. [Oregon State U., Corvallis, Oregon USA] (1990). Acedia: The etiology of work-engendered depression. New Ideas in Psychology, 8, 389-396.

This paper discusses a variety of depression that was first observed by the medieval Scholastics. Acedia results from the exclusive focus upon money, and material possessions, as often seen in the societies of highly industrialized countries. It is brought about by consequent neglect of values for leisure (i.e., neglect of cultivation of the spirit; neglect of active contemplation and appreciation of being). Acedia leads to despair, tense restlessness, angry rebelliousness, embracement of the mundane and mediocre, and intellectual lethargy. It may be labelled "burnout" or be diagnosed "adjustment disorder, with work inhibition" (DSM III code 309.23). Treatment requires cultivation of values additional to the utilitarian focus exclusively on jobs, money, material possessions. The author points out that therapy cannot work as long as leisure is identified with idleness or laziness.

Brady, T. [Dept. of Psychology, U. College, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland] (1990). Paradoxes in the pursuit of psychological well-being. Irish Journal of Psychology, 11, 277-298.

This paper does not appear to be written from a particular philosophical stance, yet it strikingly offers much documented support, from non-logotherapy literature, for several aspects of logotheory. Readers will see many non-logotherapy references that validate: problems resulting from the direct pursuit of happiness; impact of dimensional ontology; effect of lack of personal responsibility; importance of attitudinal values in suffering.

Corey, G.[Human Services Program, California State U. at Fullerton, Fullerton, California 92634 USA], Corey, M., & Callanan, P. (1990). Role of group leader's values in group counseling. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 15, 68-74.

This paper (from group work specialists rather than logotherapists) states that the main function of the group leader is to assist participants in clarifying their values. It references papers that show that therapists' values do influence their therapy in subtle as well as obvious ways. It presents six vignettes and provides commentary on how the leader's values subtly influence their interactions, and it offers suggestions for how the leaders could have responded so as to remain more neutral and thus better explore the participants' own values.

Farr, C. [2651 Belmond Ave., Victoria, British Columbia, V8S 3T4 Canada] (1990). A study of the guided imagery process: Awareness and the discovery of personal meaning. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 24, 45-52.

This paper refers to the use of four weekly sessions of guided imagery to facilitate the generation of spontaneous imagery. The procedure enhanced five women's discovery of meaning and awareness about their personal issues. The author reported that the imagery procedure enabled the participants to quickly discover and explore affective material related to important life experiences, issues, and relationships; and it allowed renewed connection with inner personal sources of creativity.

Foreman, D. (1990). The ethical use of paradoxical interventions in psychotherapy. Journal of Medical Ethics, 16, 200-205.

Frankl, V. [U. Vienna Medical School, Vienna, Austria] (1990). Facing the transitoriness of human existence. Generations, 14, 7-10.

This paper is edited from Frankl's 1989 presentation in Washington, D.C. to the Annual Meeting of the American Society on Aging. It overviews the fact that our awareness, of the fact that death lies in wait for us, serves to enhance our sense of being responsible. It discusses "survivor responsibility" to replace "survivor guilt." Suffering does not equal despair; rather, despair is suffering without meaning. This concise and well-written paper clearly presents several of Frankl's ideas, and it presents many logotherapists' favorite explanations and anecdotes.

Harvey, J. [Psychology Dept., U. Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242 USA], Orbuch, T., & Fink, K. (1990). The social psychology of account-making: Meaning, hope, and generativity. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 19, 46-57.

This is a review of an academic program of research from the realm of social psychology. Although written from a different perspective, logotherapists will see high quality scientific support in this paper for the role of self-transcendence and attitudinal values in finding meaning in unavoidable suffering.

Kusyszyn, I. [York U., 4700 Keele St., North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3] (1990). Existence, effectence, esteem: From gambling to a new theory of human motivation. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 159-177.

Used the PIL test as part of a validity study of Kusyszyn's theory of human motivation. The theory was developed out of work with non-compulsive gamblers, and suggests that the need to have an effect upon people, objects, and self is a powerful and pervasive human need that is at the core of human motivation. Purpose in life correlated positively with effectence on objects, negatively with effectence on self, and non-significantly with effectence on people in a research sample of firefighters.

Newton, G., & Dowd, E. [Dept. of Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies, Kent State U., Kent, Ohio 44242 USA] (1990). Effect of client sense of humor and paradoxical interventions on test anxiety. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68 , 668-672.

This research used test-anxious, female, college students to study the relationship of sense of humor (high vs. low) to intervention type (paradoxical vs. non-paradoxical vs. control group). Contrary to the hypothesis, the anxiety level of the low sense of humor group improved significantly more with the paradoxical intervention than did the anxiety level of the high sense of humor group. This study employed a paradoxical intervention, but not Paradoxical Intention. Still, the study offers a paradigm, instruments for assessing sense of humor, and other information that would be useful in designing a study of the effects of sense of humor on Paradoxical Intention.

Pryor, R. [New South Wales Dept. of Industrial Relations and Employment, Vocational Services Branch, P. O. Box 847, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, 2010] (1990). An investigation of factors affecting the stability of work aspect preferences. Australian Psychologist, 25, 189-209.

This highly statistical research paper comes from the field of Vocational Psychology, but is relevant to the question "are values stable?" First, the author reviews previously published research of work-related values (virtually all using high school students)--and concludes that the findings suggest value stability across age and sex. Next, the author presents new research data with post-high school students--and concludes that, overall, there is value stability across age and sex with this group also, even when there has been an intervening compromise in career decision. The length of time studied in all of the relevant investigations is relatively short.

Ridgway, I. [Faculty of Education, Monash U., Clayton, Victoria, 3168 Australia] & Sharpley, C. (1990). Multiple measures for the prediction of counsellor trainee effectiveness. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 24, 165-177.

This research study used five variables to predict three outcome measures of counselling effectiveness of 42 trainees who received microskills-based instruction. None of the predictor variables alone showed a relationship with any one of the outcome variables, but a canonical variate analysis found affective empathy significantly related to the production of high counselling skills when combined with low purpose in life (measured by the PIL test). The authors suggest that the present results, combined with past research, support the assumption that potential counselling effectiveness may be predictable by enduring personality characteristics of the trainees.

Takahashi, Y. [Yamanashi Medical College, Yamanashi, Japan] (1990). Informing a patient of malignant illness: Commentary from a cross-cultural viewpoint. Death Studies, 14, 83-91.

This communication discusses the common Japanese physician practice of not informing patients that their illness is terminal. Then a case report of psychotherapy is presented in which the author helped a dying patient find meaning in her life.

Wheeler, R. [St. Louis U., St. Louis, Missouri USA], Munz, D., & Jain, A. (1990). Life goals and general well-being. Psychological Reports, 66, 307-312.

This research used college students and psychometric instruments to assess relationships between general well-being and aspects of life-goal orientation. The group that scored above the mean on general well-being showed: a) a stronger belief that there is a framework of purpose in their life-goals; b) greater commitment to their framework; and c) a higher perspective of progress toward their goals. The group that scored below the mean on general well-being showed a tendency to place greater importance on hedonistically oriented goals, especially excitement. One of the psychometric instruments employed was the Life Esteem Survey--the instrument measures: a) the relative importance of 22 specific life-goals, plus b) scores on 4 aspects of a person's sense of purpose (framework, commitment, perspective, and quality) designed to expand the concept measured by the PIL test.

Yates, L. [Southern Illinois U., College of Technical Careers, Carbondale, Illinois USA] (1990). A note about values assessment of occupational and career stage age groups. Special Issue: Computerized testing. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 23, 39-43.

Using the Values Scale (Super & Nevill, 1982) and sophisticated statistical techniques, this study found differences in work values between some age groups and some occupational groups.